Monkey Business: The Scopes Trial of 1925
Monkey Business: The Scopes Trial of 1925
The Roaring Twenties
The 1920s marked a period of great social and technological change within American culture. Following the end of World War I and decades of industrialization, the country experienced an economic boom and rapid industrialization. Innovations such as the radio and automobiles flooded the market, as factories shifted towards mass production. Due to the ratification of the 19th Amendment in 1920, women were now allowed to vote and take a greater role in the political scene. America was quickly becoming a center of opportunity as immigration rates increased substantially, leading to urbanization in big cities. On the other hand, tensions were rising in rural areas, often populated by religious fundamentalists. They saw the changes occurring in large cities as a sign of America’s moral decline (Greenburg, 1983). What was most alarming to them, however, was the topic of evolution which directly contradicted the idea that human beings were created by God. Evangelical leaders pushed for legislation that would outlaw the teaching of evolution in schools. This moral and societal divide would come to a head in the small town of Dayton, Tennessee in 1925. The Scopes Trial, often referred to as the Scopes Monkey Trial, was a symbol of the clash between urban secularism and rural traditionalism within American society in the early 20th century.
The Butler Act and an Unlikely Figure
In his 1859 book, The Origin of Species, Charles Darwin published his theory of natural selection. He purported that species undergo descent with modification which would later be referred to as evolution. Initially, Darwin’s theory went largely unnoticed in the United States since he had published it shortly before the American Civil War. Yet, by the 1870s, Darwin’s theory of evolution drew sharp criticism from religious leaders and theologists. Charles Hodges, a prominent Presbyterian theologian, argued in his 1874 novel What is Darwinism? that Darwinism challenges traditional religious beliefs by suggesting that humans are not divinely created but rather descended from lower forms of life. He debated that this theory undermined the concept of a benevolent Creator and raised questions about the purpose and meaning of human existence. (Masci, 2020). The 20th century saw a blossoming intellectual movement that included public awareness of Darwin’s theory. Religious leaders believed the teaching of evolution, especially in schools, would undermine the authority of the Bible.
It was Tennessee’s Representative John Washington Butler who proposed a broad, yet controversial, solution. Under the Butler Act, it was illegal to teach any theory denying divine creation as taught in the Bible's Genesis account. On March 13, 1925, the Tennessee House of Representatives passed it almost unanimously, and it was the first law in the United States to ban teachings on evolution (Adams, 2005). Yet, the Butler Act was not without its opponents. The newly formed American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) was created to defend individual rights and liberties. They wanted to challenge the Constitutional validity of the Butler Act and placed newspaper ads offering financial support to any Tennessee teacher willing to challenge the law. George Rappalyea, head of the Cumberland Coal and Iron Company, responded promptly. A native of Dayton, Tennessee, Rappalyea was desperate to change his hometown’s fate and sought an opportunity to promote it. Many of its former residents had left to seek better opportunities in bigger towns, and as a result, the economy had suffered greatly. Rappalyea was convinced that the publicity from the scandal would be enough to revitalize the area, so he gathered a group of town leaders to contact the ACLU (ACLU History, 2010). The two groups quickly got together and formulated a plan. It was at this meeting that Dayton and the ACLU found the champion of their cause: 24-year-old John T. Scopes. Scopes was the football coach at the local Rhea County High School; however, due to teacher shortages, he was also teaching math, general science, and occasionally biology. He told the ACLU that he had students read about the theory of evolution in a state-approved textbook. Rappalyea then called the Justice of the Peace who put a warrant out for Scopes. He was arrested on May 7th, 1925, thus beginning the legal saga.
A (Literal) Media Circus
As the trial began on July 10th, Dayton quickly became a flurry of activity, drawing spectators and reporters from across the world. It was the first trial to ever be broadcast live in American history, costing WGN Radio $1,000 (equivalent to over $17,000 in 2023) a day. Outside the courthouse, vendors sold toy monkeys and Bibles. Even Jo Mendi, a chimpanzee Broadway star, played on the courthouse lawn in a brown suit. Time magazine described the spectacle as a cross between a holy war and a circus (Foster, 2009). Inside the courthouse, an intense legal battle was brewing. Scopes was being defended by Clarence Darrow, a religious agnostic whose previous clients included labor and political radicals. Even before the trial began, the defense was doomed to fail. Judge John T. Raulston carried a Bible with him to the stand and ended his practice of ending the court day with a prayer. Most debilitating to the defense’s case was his refusal to debate the Butler Act. Raulston stated that it was Scopes on trial, not the law. As a result, the defense was not allowed to call any witnesses who were scientists or other proponents of evolution, as Raulston stated they would only distract the proceedings (Greenburg 1983). The prosecutor was William Jennings Bryan, a populist and Evangelical Protestant, who opposed the theory of evolution as he believed it could lead to eugenics and Social Darwinism.
The Courtroom Clash and Aftermath
Darrow made the unconventional choice to cross-examine Bryan himself on the validity of the Bible since he was not allowed to provide the legitimacy of evolution. He asked a series of questions about biblical events in an attempt to see if the prosecutor accepted the holy book as literal (Masci, 2020). Though the audience seemed to side with Bryan, newspapers would later say that he appeared distressed and incompetent during the cross-examination. Still, Darrow’s unconventional tactics were not enough to reverse the opinion of the court. It took the jury only nine minutes to decide Scopes was guilty, and he was fined $100. Despite the best efforts of Darrow and the ACLU, the Butler Act remained constitutionally sound. Bryan even offered to pay for Scopes’ fine because although he believed in the validity of the Butler Act, he did not want to see a teacher get punished (Grisham, 2022). Nevertheless, Scopes appealed his verdict to the Tennessee Supreme Court, and they overturned the decision due to the fact that any fine over $50 had to be levied by the jury. Ironically, the Scopes Trial helped bring widespread publicity to the theory of evolution. By sparking debates about science versus religion and highlighting flaws within educational systems, it left an indelible mark on American society's understanding of Darwin’s theory. The Butler Act would later be repealed in 1967, 42 years after its passage.
The Lasting Impact of the Scopes Trial
The Scopes Monkey Trial had far-reaching repercussions for American culture and education. Although John Scopes was found guilty, his trial called to light the significance of academic freedom and critical thought in education. Furthermore, it revealed the still-present chasm between religious fanaticism and scientific advancement. The trial emphasized the contradiction between faith-based ideas and factual data, demonstrating how these opposing worldviews may collide in a democratic society. Even today, the United States continues to struggle with the relationship between church and state, with a national debate regarding how scientific knowledge should be taught and accepted in schools. While the trial's immediate conclusion rewarded religious conservatism over scientific investigation, it triggered a worldwide discussion about education and intellectual freedom. The Scopes Trial, ultimately, is an important moment in American history that represents the constant battle to reconcile tradition and progress.
Works Cited
ACLU history: The Scopes “Monkey Trial.” American Civil Liberties Union. (2010, September 1). https://www.aclu.org/documents/aclu-history-scopes-monkey-trial
Adams, N. (2005, July 5). Timeline: Remembering the Scopes Monkey Trial. https://www.npr.org/2005/07/05/4723956/timeline-remembering-the-scopes-monkey-trial
Foster, J. C. (2009). Scopes Monkey Trial. https://www.mtsu.edu/first-amendment/article/1100/scopes-monkey-trial
Greenburg, M. M. (1983, January 15). The Constitutional Issues Surrounding the Science-Religion Conflict in Public Schools: The Anti-Evolution Controversy. Pepperdine Law Review. https://digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/plr/vol10/iss2/4
Grisham, C. (2022, July 18). 5 Things You Didn’t Know About the Scopes “Monkey” Trial. https://tnmuseum.org/junior-curators/posts/5-things-you-didnt-know-about-the-scopes-monkey-trial?locale=en
Masci, D. (2020, May 30). The Social and Legal Dimensions of the Evolution Debate in the U.S. Pew Research Center’s Religion & Public Life Project. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2009/02/04/the-social-and-legal-dimensions-of-the-evolution-debate-in-the-us/
