Revisiting the Concept of Hegemonic Masculinity and Adapting it to the Extractivist Context in Guatemala
Introduction: Raewyn Connell and the concept of Hegemonic Masculinities
Thinking about gender relations, both in research and empirical investigation, through the concept of hegemonic masculinity, or even masculinities, is relatively new. Introduced into the field of academic and empirical gender research in the 1980s by the Australian sociologist Raewyn Connell, this concept has made it possible to consider, analyze and deconstruct relations of male-female domination and patriarchy from the male perspective. Hegemonic masculinity is defined by Connell in 1995 as "[not being] a fixed and unchanging personality type, but masculinity that is in a hegemonic position within a given structure of gender relations, a position that is always subject to challenge". She then goes on to define it as "that which guarantees (or is supposed to guarantee) the dominant position of men and the subordination of women." It thus designates a configuration of - mainly masculine - gender practice that maintains the disparity of power(s) between women and men in a given time and place; the dominant form of representation of masculinity in a given time and place.
Throughout this paper, a short analysis will be made of the evolution in the definition and practice of the concept of hegemonic masculinities. Especially in the mining context of 2010’s San Rafael las Flores, in Escuintla, Guatemala. The main idea is to understand how gender norms and orders within a community and social context can be altered by external factors, such as the arrival of mining activities.
Hegemonic Masculinity, Hegemonic Femininities, and Post-Colonialism
Raewyn Connell is also known for her work on class and gender relations in schools, and on Global North/South relations in academic research. In her article entitled: "Hegemony, masculinity, coloniality" published in 2015 in the French scientific journal Genre, sexualité et société, devoted to sexuality and gender issues, Connell analyzes the concept of hegemonic masculinity in greater depth and from a more diverse perspective, allowing the concept to be used and understood within different contexts and at different scales (local, regional, or global). Indeed, during the 1980s-1990s, "research on men and masculinity was still consolidating as an academic field, supported by a series of conferences, the publication of books and several journals, and a research agenda across the humanities and social sciences", as Connell and Messerschmidt explain in another article. This enabled the concept to spread, gain in importance, and be used in different fields (education, psychology, crime, among others) and territories (notably, the so-called Southern countries). What's more, the acceleration of globalization at the beginning of the 20th century, as well as the liberalization of economic, social, and cultural exchanges between countries and socio-cultural groups, reinforced this propagation effect and enabled the concept to be adapted, revised, and (re)defined - even criticized -, in distinct socio-cultural contexts and fields. These new interpretations and approaches to the concept of hegemonic masculinity occupy and inspire this paper.
Connell further revises the concept and (re)thinks about it in the light of post-colonial studies and poses the question of hegemony and gender relations during colonial upheavals. She focuses on the politics of gender reform, as the stabilization of gender relations in "uncertain circumstances" (as described by her), notably colonial and postcolonial circumstances. The maintained thesis is that social and gender structures change or alter under imperialism and a neoliberal globalized system, provoking hegemonic projects within different geographical and social contexts that seek to adapt local and/or regional masculinities and hegemonic masculinities to imperial and transnational gender orders. These alterations or modifications in social and gender structures are understood as "the sedimented consequences of generations of gender practices", or the result of the arrival of hegemonic projects and practices foreign, past, or present, to the region, as Connell explains.
The concept of hegemonic masculinity was introduced during the first sessions of the seminar through Raewyn Connell's texts and helped us analyze and discuss many, if not all, other texts during the seminar. Notably, the article by Mimi Schippers (Schippers, 2007), proposes a study of hegemonic femininity and its imbrication with designated hegemonic masculinities, and the co-construction between the two. She writes: "We can identify hegemonic masculinity by examining the practices most stigmatized (...) when embodied by women (…)" to make explicit the relationship that exists between masculinities and femininities in defining and sustaining hegemony. Schippers concentrates on how the two complement one another to create gender structures and configurations at the local, regional, and even global levels.
Shattered gender orders: New Masculinities in Practice in San Rafael las Flores
Thinking of this situation in terms of masculinity allowed me to note that the installation of the mine, like the entry of market capitalism, in San Rafael las Flores, was accompanied by the arrival of a new hegemony, a new model of hegemonic masculinity and new hegemonic projects on the part of men and/or masculinities in the region to adapt to. As Connell explains, colonialism (in this case, the arrival of a North American company) radically disrupts local gender orders. Colonialism confronts or gives access to individuals to a new hegemony. Extractive enterprises such as the El Escobal mine may bring and present a model of “industrial/breadwinner masculinity” (purely economic producer, who supports the family) that was not as prevalent in San Rafael las Flores prior to the establishment of the mine. And thus, new ways - physical, economic, and/or sexual - for masculinities to exercise their domination over women, and femininities more broadly, within this new gendered order.
In the same way, the concept of hegemonic masculinity, and especially the specifications and elaborations given in the two articles at the heart of this writing, enabled me to gain a deeper understanding of the changing gendered and economic dynamics and relations within the community of San Rafael las Flores in southeastern Guatemala. The El Escobal mine, located in this community, is the world's second-largest silver mine, as well as a source of deep environmental, socio-cultural, and political conflict in the region. Indeed, relations of domination between men and women have been reinforced by the new socio-economic dynamics and wages brought about by the mine's arrival. In particular, all the interviewees I spoke to during my fieldwork mentioned that the arrival of El Escobal was accompanied on the one hand by the arrival of foreign people/workers and a certain range of businesses they described as "negative", such as bars, alcohol sales, and prostitutes; and on the other hand, behaviors such as conjugal and intra-family violence against women, whether physical, psychological, patrimonial and/or sexual; among others.
Conclusion
In this paper, we have explored the concept of hegemonic masculinities, as introduced by Raewyn Connell, and its application in understanding gender relations in the mining context of San Rafael las Flores, Guatemala. Through the lens of hegemonic masculinity, we have analyzed the shifts in gender norms and orders caused by external factors such as the arrival of mining activities.
Connell's work on hegemonic masculinity, along with her exploration of postcolonial studies, has provided a deeper understanding of the dynamics between power, gender, and imperialism. The concept has evolved over time, allowing for its adaptation and application in diverse contexts and fields.
Examining the case of the El Escobal mine in San Rafael las Flores, we have witnessed the emergence of a new hegemony and a model of industrial/breadwinner masculinity, which has led to the exercise of domination over women and femininity within the community. The arrival of the mine has reinforced gender-based violence and other negative behaviors.
By utilizing the concept of hegemonic masculinity, this paper has shed light on the complex interplay between gender, power, and socioeconomic dynamics. It highlights the importance of understanding and challenging unequal power structures to strive for more equitable societies.
Works Cited
CONNELL Raewyn, « Hégémonie, masculinité, colonialité », Genre, sexualité & société [En ligne], 13 | Printemps 2015, mis en ligne le 01 juin 2015, consulté le 18 janvier 2019. URL : http:// journals.openedition.org/gss/3429 ; DOI : 10.4000/gss.3429
CONNELL Raewyn, MESSERSCHMIDT James (2015). « Faut-il repenser le concept de masculinité hégémonique ?» , traduit par Élodie Béthoux et Caroline Vincensini. Terrains & travaux, 2(27), p.151-92.
HULTMAN, Martin, and PULÉ , Paul (2018) « Masculine ecologisation : from industrial/breadwinner to economodern to ecological masculinities » in Ecological Masculinities: Theoretical Foundations and Practical Guidance, London, UK: Routledge. 254 pp.
SCHIPPERS, Mimi (2007) « Recovering the feminine other: masculinity, femininity, and gender hegemony », Theory and Society, 36, p. 85–102
